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PARTⅠ1

1.Introduction&Elizabeth Wilmshurst1

2.The Nature of War and the Character of Contemporary Armed Conflict&Steven Haines9

1.Introduction9

2.Clausewitz and the nature of war10

2.1.Clausewitz and ‘New Wars’ theory13

3.The changing characteristics of modern armed conflict15

3.1.Regular warfare16

3.1.1 A fourth generation of war？18

3.2.Irregular war21

3.2.1 Insurrection， insurgency， guerilla （and urban guerilla） warfare21

3.2.2 Complex irregular warfare22

3.2.3 Advanced irregular warfare23

3.2.4 Compound warfare23

3.2.5 Hybrid warfare23

3.2.6 Criminal warfare and insurgency24

3.2.7 Terrorism27

3.3.Cosmopolitan action27

4.Conclusions29

3.Classification of Armed Conflicts：Relevant Legal Concepts&Dapo Akande32

1.Introduction32

2.History of the distinction between international and non-international armed conflicts32

3.Consequences of the distinction between international and non-international armed conflicts34

4.Why does the distinction exist and should it be abolished？37

5.The scope of application of international humanitarian law：international armed conflicts39

5.1.Inter-state conflict39

5.1.1 War39

5.1.2 Armed conflict40

5.1.3 Occupation44

5.2.Self-determination conflicts of national liberation under article 1（4） of Additional ProtocolⅠ49

5.3.Recognition of belligerency49

6.The scope of application of international humanitarian law：non-international armed conflicts50

6.1.Common Article351

6.2.Additional ProtocolⅡ54

6.3.A third threshold？56

7.Foreign intervention in non-international armed conflicts56

7.1.Foreign intervention on the side of a non-state armed group against a State57

7.2.Foreign intervention at the invitation （or with consent） of a State against a non-state armed group62

7.3.Mixed conflicts63

8.Intervention by multinational forces under UN command or authorized by the UN64

9.Extraterritorial conflicts with non-state armed groups70

4.Conflict Classification and the Law Applicable to Detention and the Use of Force&Jelena Pejic80

1.Introduction80

2.Applicable law-an overview81

3.Detention in armed conflict85

3.1.Internment in armed conflict： international armed conflict86

3.1.1 POW internment87

3.1.2 Internment of civilians88

3.2.Internment in armed conflict： non-international armed conflict90

3.2.1 Ways forward95

3.3.Transfer of detainees97

3.3.1 Ways forward101

4.The use of force in armed conflict102

4.1.Rules on the conduct of hostilities in armed conflict104

4.1.1 Meaning of the term direct participation in hostilities’105

4.2.Use of force in occupied territory108

4.3.Use of force under human rights law110

5.Concluding remarks115

PARTⅡ117

5.Northern Ireland 1968-1998&Steven Haines117

1.Introduction117

2.General summary of the conflict119

2.1.The rival forces119

2.1.1 The Security Forces in Northern Ireland （SFNI）120

2.1.2 Republican groups121

2.1.3 Loyalist groups122

2.2.Civil disturbances 1968—1971123

2.3.Insurgency 1971—1974124

2.4.Terrorism 1975—1994127

2.5.Conflict resolution 1994—1998129

3.Classification of the hostilities130

3.1.Views of the parties and others on classification130

3.1.1 The United Kingdom130

3.1.2 PIRA131

3.1.3 Others131

3.2.Analysis of the classification133

4.The application of force137

4.1.The‘shoot to kill’controversy138

5.Detention139

5.1.Internment139

5.2.Special category status140

6.Other issues141

6.1.Weapons issues141

6.2.Interrogation142

7.Conclusions143

Chronology144

6.The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993—2010&Louise Arimatsu146

1.Introduction147

2.The legacy of Colonialism and the Cold War：March1993—summer 1996148

2.1.History148

2.2.Classification of the conflict151

2.2.1 Classification of the conflict by the parties and by others151

2.2.2 Author’s classification152

2.3.The use of force154

2.4.Detention155

2.5.Co-applicability of international humanitarian law and international human rights law156

3.The First Congo War： from a global site of conflict to a regional one （July1996—July1998）156

3.1.History156

3.2.Classification of the conflict160

3.2.1 Classification of the conflict by the parties and by others160

3.2.2 Author’s classification162

3.3.The use of force in armed conflict164

3.4.Detention164

3.5.The concurrent applicability of international human rights law166

4.The Second Congo War： Africa’s World War （2 August1998—July2003）167

4.1. History167

4.2. Classification of the conflict172

4.2.1 Classification of the conflict by the parties and by others172

4.2.2 Author’s classification176

4.3. Use of force181

4.4. Detention182

4.5. International human rights law184

5. Transition or repetition？ （2003—2011）185

5.1. History185

5.2. Classification of the conflict189

5.2.1 Classification of the conflict by the parties and by others189

5.2.2 Author’s classification189

5.3. The use of force192

5.4. Detention196

5.5. International human rights law196

6. Conclusion： Framing the DRC within the law197

6.1. Difficulties of classification197

6.2. Use of force and detention199

6.3. Looking to the future200

Chronology201

7. Colombia Felicity Szesnat and Annie&R.Bird203

1. Introduction203

2. Brief outline of the Colombian hostilities204

2.1. The 1960s205

2.2. The 1970s206

2.3. The 1980s206

2.4. Early 1990s to 2002207

2.4.1 Paramilitary groups208

2.5. 2002 to the present day210

2.5.1 FARC and ELN210

2.5.2 Paramilitary groups211

2.5.3 The emergence of new armed groups213

2.6. Effects of the armed conflict214

3. Classification of the Colombian conflict by the relevant actors214

3.1. Colombia214

3.2. FARC215

3.3. ELN216

3.4. AUC216

3.5. Other States216

3.5.1 Ecuador216

3.5.2 Venezuela217

3.5.3 The US218

3.6. Other institutions219

4. Authors’classification of the Colombian conflict220

4.1. Has the Colombian armed conflict been ‘internationalized’through the intervention of foreign States？220

4.2. Recognition of belligerency？ The case of FARC221

4.3. The relationship between paramilitary groups and the Colombian government， as it affects the classification of the armed conflict223

4.4. Can criminal violence ever qualify as an armed conflict？225

4.5. Classification of hostilities involving groups active in the Colombian armed conflict226

5. Rules on opening fire228

6. Rules on detention230

7. Operation Phoenix232

7.1. Classification of Operation Phoenix by the participants and others233

7.1.1 Colombia233

7.1.2 Ecuador234

7.1.3 Responses by other States to Operation Phoenix235

7.2. Authors’ classification of Operation Phoenix236

7.3. Rules on opening fire in Operation Phoenix237

7.4. Rules on detention in Operation Phoenix238

8. Conclusions239

Chronology241

8. Afghanistan 2001—2010 Francoise&J.Hampson242

1. Introduction242

2. October 2011 to the installation of Hamid Karzai244

2.1. Views of the parties on classification of the hostilities245

2.1.1 Who were the parties？245

2.1.2 Classification of the conflict by the parties249

2.2. Author’s view of the classification of the conflicts251

3. The installation of Hamid Karzai to the present252

3.1. Views of the parties as to classification of the conflicts255

3.1.1 Operation Enduring Freedom （OEF）255

3.1.2 ISAF255

3.2. Author’s view of the classification of the conflicts256

4. Rules on opening fire258

5. Rules on detention263

5.1. First phase of the conflicts：October 2001 -June 2002263

5.2. Second phase of the conflicts： June 2002-present265

5.3. Transfer273

6. International human rights law275

7. Conclusions276

7.1. Classification276

7.2. Consequences277

7.3. In sum278

Chronology278

9. Gaza Iain&Scobbie280

1. Introduction280

2. Description of the situation280

2.1. Background280

2.2. Restrictions relating to Gaza283

2.3. The aims of Hamas285

3. The views of States and others on the classification of the conflict286

3.1. Before disengagement （2000-2005）287

3.1.1 Israel’s views287

3.1.2 Hamas’views289

3.2. Israel’s disengagement from Gaza （2005onwards）290

3.2.1 Israel’s views290

3.2.2 Hamas’views292

3.2.3 Views of other States293

3.3. Hamas’ accession to power in Gaza （2007）294

4. Author’s analysis of the classification of the conflict（September 2000—March 2011）295

4.1. Withdrawal of troops leading to termination of occupation？296

4.2. Inability to carry out obligations of occupier？297

4.3. Israel’s continuing control298

4.4. A separate conflict with Hamas？301

5. Rules on application of force305

6. Rules on capture and detention308

7. Other significant problems of international humanitarian and human rights law312

8. Conclusions314

Chronology315

10. South Ossetia （2008）&Philip Leach317

1. Introduction317

2. The hostilities318

2.1. Historical context318

2.2. Events of August 2008320

2.2.1 The armed conflict320

2.2.2 The ceasefire agreement321

2.3. The aftermath of the conflict322

2.3.1 The buffer zone322

3. Views of the parties and others on conflict classification326

3.1. Russia326

3.2. Georgia327

3.3. South Ossetia328

3.4. Other parties328

3.5. The International Independent Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia （the Tagliavini Report）330

4. Author’s analysis of classification330

4.1. International armed conflict330

4.2. A concurrent，non-international armed conflict332

4.3. The extent of Russian control over South Ossetia334

4.4. Russia’s presence in South Ossetia339

5. Use of force and detention342

5.1. Domestic law on the use of force， on capture and detention，and other international humanitarian law problems342

5.2. Treatment of detainees and other significant international humanitarian law problems344

5.3. Detainees346

5.4. Russia’s responsibilities as an occupying power348

5.5. The Georgian law on occupied territories350

6. Conclusions351

6.1. Difficulties of classification351

6.2. Consequences of classification for international humanitarian law353

6.3. Application of human rights law354

6.4. Impact of classification for application of the law354

Chronology355

11. Iraq （2003 onwards）&Michael N.Schmitt356

1. Introduction356

2. Classification of the conflict358

2.1. PhaseⅠ： international armed conflict358

2.1.1 Views of the parties and others358

2.1.2 Author’s analysis of classification359

2.2. PhaseⅡ：belligerent occupation361

2.2.1 Views of the parties and others361

2.2.2 Author’s analysis of classification363

2.3. Phase Ⅲ： non-international armed conflict367

2.3.1 Views of the parties and others367

2.3.2 Author’s analysis of classification369

3. Rules on capture and detention375

4. Rules on use of force380

5. Other significant problems of international humanitarian law380

6. Conclusions384

Chronology386

12. Lebanon 2006&lain Scobbie387

1. Introduction387

1.1. Context387

1.2. The initiation and conduct of the hostilities390

2. The views of the relevant States and others on the classification of the conflict392

2.1. Israel392

2.2. Lebanon394

2.3. Views expressed by other States in the Security Council and other fora395

2.4. Official UN statements398

3. Author’s analysis of the classification of the conflict400

3.1. The conflict between Israel and Lebanon402

3.2. The conflict between Israel and Hezbollah408

4. The rules governing the application of force410

5. Rules on capture and detention413

6. Conclusions417

6.1. Difficulties of classification417

6.2. Whether classification had practical consequences417

Chronology419

13. The War （？） against Al-Qaeda&Noam Lubell421

1. Introduction421

2. Background to the hostilities421

2.1. Al-Qaeda424

3. Views of the parties and of others on conflict classification428

3.1. The United States428

3.2. Al-Qaeda and territorial States430

3.3. Other States and entities430

4. Author’s analysis of the classification （or existence） of the conflict430

4.1. International armed conflict431

4.2. Non-international armed conflict434

4.3. Part of pre-existing armed conflict437

4.4. New type of conflict439

4.5. No armed conflict441

5. Rules on application of force441

6. Rules on detention444

6.1. Guantanamo and formal detention445

6.2. Secret detention and detention by proxy446

7. Rules on other significant problems of international humanitarian law447

7.1. Drones447

7.2. Individual status448

8. Conclusions451

8.1. Difficulties of classification451

8.2. Consequences of classification for international humanitarian law452

8.3. Application of human rights law453

8.4. Impact of classification for application of the law454

14. Classification in Future Conflict&Michael N.Schmitt455

1. Introduction： understanding future conflict455

2. Cyber warfare457

3. Transnational terrorism464

4. Complex battlespaces469

5. Law’s influence on future conflict473

6. Conclusions477

PARTⅢ478

15. Conclusions&Elizabeth Wilmshurst478

1. Introduction478

2. Case studies： problems of classification478

2.1. Non-international armed conflict480

2.2. Issues of recognition483

2.3. Extraterritorial operations against non-state groups483

2.4. Occupation and hostilities within an occupation484

2.5. Operations established or authorized by the UN Security Council486

2.6. Attribution488

2.7. Mixed or parallel conflicts489

2.8. Geography490

3. Case studies： the legal and practical consequences of classification490

3.1. Few or no consequences491

3.2. The consequences of classification for the application of force，detention， and other issues of international humanitarian law and international criminal law493

3.2.1 Application of force493

3.2.2 Detention495

3.2.3 International human rights law496

3.2.4 International criminal law498

4. Conclusions499

Index505