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1.1 Growth Of Computer Networking,1

Chapter Contents1

Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 Growth Of Computer Networking1

1.2 Complexity In Network Systems,2

1.3 Mastering The Complexity,2

1.2 Complexity In Network Systems2

1.3 Mastering The Complexity2

1.4 Concepts And Terminology,3

1.5 Organization Of The Text,3

1.4 Concepts And Terminology3

1.5 Organization Of The Text3

1.6 Summary,4

1.6 Summary4

Chapter 2 Motivation And Tools7

2.1 Introduction7

2.2 Resource Sharing7

2.3 Growth Of The Internet8

2.4 Probing The Internet11

2.5 Interpreting A Ping Response12

2.6 Tracing A Route14

2.7 Summary15

Chapter 3 Network Programming And Applications17

3.1 Introduction17

3.2 Network Communication18

3.3 Client-Server Computing18

3.4 Communication Paradigm19

3.5 An Example Application Program Interface19

3.7 Definition Of The ApI20

3.6 An Intuitive Look At The API20

3.8 Code For An Echo Application23

Preface27

Contents27

3.9 Code ForA Chat Application29

3.10 Code For A Web Application33

3.11 Summary41

4.2 Copper Wires45

4.1 Introduction45

PART Ⅰ Data Transmission45

Chapter 4 Transmission Media45

4.3 Glass Fibers47

4.4 Radio48

4.5 Satellites48

4.6 Geosynchronous Satellites49

4.7 Low Earth Orbit Satellites50

4.8 Low Earth Orbit Satellite Arrays50

4.10 Infrared51

4.9 Microwave51

4.11 Light From A Laser52

4.12 Summary52

Chapter 5 Local Asynchronous Communication(RS-232)55

5.1 Introduction55

5.2 The Need For Asynchronous Communication56

5.3 Using Electric Current To Send Bits56

5.4 Standards For Communication57

5.5 Baud Rate,Framing,And Errors59

5.6 Full Duplex Asynchronous Communication60

5.7 Limitations Of Real Hardware61

5.8 Hardware Bandwidth And The Transmission Of Bits62

5.9 The Effect OfNoise On Communication62

5.10 Significance For Data Networking63

5.11 Summary64

6.1 Introduction67

6.2 Sending Signals Across Long Distances67

Modems)67

Chapter 6 Long-Distance Communication(Carriers,Modulation,And67

6.3 Modem Hardware Used For Modulation And Demodulation70

6.4 Leased Analog Data Circuits71

6.5 Optical,Radio Frequency,And Dialup Modems72

6.6 Carrier Frequencies And Multiplexing73

6.7 Baseband And Broadband Technologies75

6.8 Wave Division Multiplexing75

6.9 Spread Spectrum76

6.10 Time Division Multiplexing76

6.11 Summary77

PART Ⅱ Packet Transmission81

Chapter 7 Packets,Frames,And Error Detection81

7.1 Introduction81

7.2 The Concept Of Packets81

7.3 Packets And Time-Division Multiplexing83

7.4 Packets And Hardware Frames84

7.5 Byte Stuffing85

7.7 Parity Bits And parity Checking87

7.6 Transmission Errors87

7.8 Probability,Mathematics,And Error Detection88

7.9 Detecting Errors With Checksums89

7.10 Detecting Errors With Cyclic Redundancy Checks90

7.11 Combining Building Blocks92

7.12 Burst Errors93

7.13 Frame Format And Error Detection Mechanisms93

7.14 Summary94

Chapter 8 LAN Technologies And Network Topology99

8.1 Introduction99

8.2 Direct Point-to-Point Communication100

8.3 Shared Communication Channels102

8.4 Significance Of LANs And Locality Of Reference102

8.5 LAN Topologies103

8.6 Example Bus Network:Ethernet106

8.7 Carrier Sense On Multi-Access Networks(CSMA)108

8.8 Collision Detection And Backoff With CSMA/CD108

8.9 802.11 Wireless LANs And CSMA/CA110

8.10 Another Example Bus Network:LocalTalk111

8.11 Example Ring Network:IBM Token Ring112

8.12 Another Example Ring Network:FDDI114

8.13 Example Star Network:ATM115

8.14 Summary117

Chapter 9 Hardware Addressing And Frame Type Identification121

9.1 Introduction121

9.2 Specifying A Recipient122

9.3 How LAN Hardware Uses Addresses To Filter Packets122

9.4 Format Of A Physical Address124

9.5 Broadcasting125

9.6 Multicasting126

9.7 Multicast Addressing127

9.8 Identifying Packet Contents128

9.9 Frame Headers And Frame Format128

910 An Example Frame Format129

9.11 Using Networks That Do Not Have Self-Identifying Frames131

9.12 Network Analyzers,Physical Addresses,Frame Types133

9.13 Summary134

9.14 Ethernet Address Assignment136

10.2 Speeds Of LANs And Computers139

10.1 Introduction139

Chapter 10 LAN Wiring,Physical Topology,And Interface Hardware139

10.3 Network Interface Hardware140

10.4 The Connection Between A NIC And A Network142

10.5 Original Thick Ethernet Wiring142

10.6 Connection Multiplexing144

10.7 Thin Ethernet Wiring145

10.8 Twisted Pair Ethernet146

10.9 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Wiring Schemes148

10.11 Network Interface Cards And Wiring Schemes150

10.10 The Topology Paradox150

10.12 Wiring Schemes And Other Network Technologies152

10.13 Summary153

Chapter 11 Extending LANs:Fiber Modems,Repeaters,Bridges,and155

Switches155

11.1 Introduction155

11.2 Distance Limitation And LAN Design155

11.3 Fiber Optic Extensions156

11.4 Repeaters157

11.5 Bridges160

11.6 Frame Filtering161

11.7 Startup And Steady State Behavior Of Bridged Networks162

11.8 Planning A Bridged Network162

11.9 Bridging Between Buildings163

11.10 Bridging Across Longer Distances164

11.11 A Cycle Of Bridges166

11.12 Distributed Spanning Tree167

11.13 Switching168

11.15 Bridging And Switching With Other Technologies169

11.14 Combining Switches And Hubs169

11.16 Summary170

Chapter 12 Long-Distance Digital Connection Technologies173

12.1 Introduction173

12.2 Digital Telephony173

12.3 Synchronous Communication175

12.4 Digital Circuits And DSU/CSUs176

12.5 Telephone Standards177

12.6 DS Terminology And Data Rates178

12.7 Lower Capacity Circuits179

12.8 Intermediate Capacity Digital Circuits179

12.9 Highest Capacity Circuits180

12.10 Optical Carner Standards181

12.11 The C Suffix181

12.12 Synchronous Optical NETwork(SONET)181

12.13 The Local Subscriber Loop183

12.14 ISDN183

12.15 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Technology184

12.16 Other DSL Technologies187

12.17 Cable Modem Technology188

12.18 Upstream Communication189

12.19 Hybrid Fiber Coax190

12.20 Fiber To The Curb191

12.21 Alternatives For Special Cases191

12.22 Broadcast Satellite Systems192

12.23 Summary193

13.2 Large Networks And Wide Areas197

13.1 Introduction197

Chapter 13 WAN Technologies And Routing197

13.3 Packet Switches198

13.4 Forming A WAN199

13.5 Store And Forward200

13.6 Physical Addressing In A WAN201

13.7 Next-Hop Forwarding201

13.8 Source Independence203

13.9 Relationship Of Hierarchical Addresses To Routing203

13.10 Routing In A wAN204

13.11 Use Of Default Routes206

13.13 Shortest Path Computation In A Graph207

13.12 Routing Table Computation207

13.14 Distributed Route Computation209

13.15 Distance Vector Routing209

13.16 Link-State Routing(SPF)212

13.17 Example WAN Technologies212

13.18 Summary214

14.1 Introduction217

14.2 A Single,Global Network217

Chapter 14 Connection-Oriented Networking And ATM217

14.3 ISDN And ATM218

14.4 ATM Design And Cells218

14.5 Connection-Oriented Service220

14.6 VPI/VCI220

14.7 Labels And Label Switching221

14.8 An Example Trip Through An ATM Network222

14.9 Permanent Virtual Circuits223

14.10 Switched Virtual Circuits224

14.12 The Motivation For Cells And Label Switching225

14.11 Quality Of Service225

14.13 ATM Data Transmission And AAL5226

14.14 Critique of ATM227

14.15 Summary228

Chapter 15 Network Characteristics:Ownership,Service Paradigm,231

And Performance231

15.1 Introduction231

15.2 Network Ownership232

15.4 Advantages And Disadvantages233

15.3 Privacy And Public Networks233

15.5 Virtual Private Networks234

15.6 Guaranteeing Absolute Privacy235

15.7 Service Paradigm235

15.8 Connection-Oriented Service Paradigm236

15.9 Connectionless Service Paradigm237

15.10 Interior And Exterior Service Paradigms237

15.11 Comparison Of Service Paradigms238

15.12 Examples Of Service Paradigms238

15.13 Addresses And Connection Identifiers239

15.14 Network Performance Characteristics240

15.15 Jitter244

15.16 Summary244

Chapter 16 Protocols And Layering247

16.1 Introduction247

16.2 TheNeed ForProtocols247

16.3 Protocol Suites248

16.5 The Seven Layers249

16.4 A Plan For Protocol Design249

16.6 Stacks:Layered Software251

16.7 How Layered Software Works253

16.8 Multiple,Nested Headers254

16.9 The Scientific Basis For Layering254

16.10 Techniques Protocols Use255

16.11 The Art Of Protocol Design264

16.12 Summary264

17.2 The Motivation For Internetworking269

17.1 Introduction269

Chapter 17 Internetworking:Concepts,Architecture,and Protocols269

PART Ⅲ Internetworking269

17.3 The Concept Of Universal Service270

17.4 Universal Service In A Heterogeneous World270

17.5 Internetworking271

17.6 Physical Network Connection With Routers271

17.7 Internet Architecture272

17.8 Achieving Universal Service273

17.9 A Virtual Network273

17.11 Significance Of Internetworking And TCP/IP275

17.10 Protocols For Internetworking275

17.12 Layering And TCp/IP Protocols276

17.13 Host Computers,Routers,And Protocol Layers277

17.14 Summary278

Chapter 18 IP:Internet ProtocoI Addresees281

18.1 Introduction281

18.2 Addresses For The Virtual Internet281

18.3 The IP Addressing Scheme282

18.5 Original Classes Of IP Addresses283

18.4 The IP Address Hierarchy283

18.6 Computing The Class of An Address285

18.7 Dotted Decimal Notation286

18.8 Classes And Dotted Decimal Notation287

18.9 Division Of The Address Space287

18.10 Authority For Addresses288

18.11 A Classful Addressing Example288

18.12 Subnet And Classless Addressing289

18.13 Address Masks290

18.14 CIDR Notation291

18.15 A CIDR Address Block Example291

18.16 CIDR Host Addresses292

18.17 Special IP Addresses293

18.18 Summary of Special IP Addresses294

18.19 The Berkeley Broadcast Address Form295

18.20 Routers And The IP Addressing Principle295

18.21 Multi-Homed Hosts297

18.22 Summary297

19.1 Introduction301

Chapter 19 Binding Protocol Addresses(ARP)301

19.2 Protocol Addresses And Packet Delivery302

19.3 Address Resolution302

19.4 Address Resolution Techniques303

19.5 Address Resolution With Table Lookup304

19.6 Address Resolution With Closed-Form Computation305

19.7 Address Resolution With Message Exchange306

19.8 Address Resolution Protocol307

19.9 ARP Message Delivery308

19.10 ARP Message Format309

19.11 Sending An ARP Message310

19.12 Identifying ARP Frames311

19.13 Caching ARP Responses311

19.14 Processing An Incoming ARP Message312

19.15 Layering,Address Resolution,Protocol Addresses313

19.16 Summary314

Chapter 20 IP Datagrams And Datagram Forwarding317

20.1 Introduction317

20.2 Connectionless Service317

20.3 Virtual Packets318

20.4 The IP Datagram319

20.5 Forwarding An IP Datagram320

20.6 IP Addresses And Routing Table Entries321

20.7 The Mask Field And Datagram Forwarding322

20.8 Destination And Next-Hop Addresses322

20.9 Best-Effort Delivery323

20.10 The IP Datagram Header Format324

20.11 Summary325

21.1 Introduction329

21.2 Datagram Transmission And Frames329

Chapter 21 IP Encapsulation,Fragmentation,And Reassembly329

21.3 Encapsulation330

21.4 Transmission Across An Internet331

21.5 MTU,Datagram Size,And Encapsulation332

21.6 Reassembly334

21.7 Identifying A Datagram334

21.8 Fragment Loss335

21.9 Fragmenting A Fragment335

21.10 Summary336

22.2 The Success Of IP339

Chapter 22 The Future IP(IPv6)339

22.1 Introduction339

22.3 The Motivation For Change340

22.4 A Name And A Version Number341

22.5 IPv6 Features341

22.6 IPv6 Datagram Format342

22.7 IPv6 Base Header Format342

22.8 How IPv6 Handles Multiple Headers344

22.9 Fragmentation,Reassembly,And Path MTU345

22.10 The Purpose Of Multiple Headers346

22.11 IPv6 Addressing347

22.12 IPv6 Colon Hexadecimal Notation348

22.13 Summary349

Chapter 23 An Error Reporting Mechanism(ICMP)351

23.1 Introduction351

23.2 Best-Effort Semantics And Error Detection351

23.3 Internet Control Message Protocol352

23.4 ICMP Message Transport355

23.6 Using ICMP To Trace A Route356

23.5 Using ICMP Messages To Test Reachability356

23.7 The Last Address Printed By Traceroute357

23.8 Using ICMP For Path MTU Discovery358

23.9 Summary359

Chapter 24 TCP:Reliable Transport Service361

24.1 Introduction361

24.2 The Need For Reliable Transport361

24.3 The Transmission Control Protocol362

24.4 The Service TCP Provides To Applications362

24.5 End-To-End Service And Datagrams363

24.6 Achieving Reliability364

24.7 Packet Loss And Retransmission365

24.8 Adaptive Retransmission366

24.9 Comparison Of Retransmission Times367

24.10 Buffers,Flow Control,And Windows367

24.11 Three-Way Handshake369

24.12 Congestion Control370

24.13 TCP Segment Format370

24.14 Summary371

25.1 Introduction375

25.2 Static Vs.Dynamic Routing375

Chapter 25 Internet Routing375

25.3 Static Routing In Hosts And A Default Route376

25.4 Dynamic Routing And Routers377

25.5 Routing In The Global Internet378

25.6 Autonomous System Concept379

25.7 The Two Types Of Internet Routing Protocols380

25.9 The Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)382

25.8 Routes And Data Traffic382

25.10 The Routing Information Protocol (RIP)384

25.11 RIP Packet Format385

25.12 The Open Shortest Path First Protocol(OSPF)386

25.13 An Example OSPF Graph387

25.14 OSPF Areas388

25.15 Multicast Routing388

25.16 Summary392

26.1 Introduction397

Chapter 26 Client-Server Interaction397

PART Ⅳ Network Applications397

26.2 The Functionality Application Software Provides398

26.3 The Functionality An Internet Provides398

26.4 Making Contact399

26.5 The Client-Server Paradigm399

26.6 Characteristics Of Clients And Servers400

26.7 Server Programs And Server-Class Computers400

26.9 Transport Protocols and Client-Server Interaction401

26.8 Requests,Responses,And Direction Of Data Flow401

26.10 Multiple Services On One Computer402

26.11 Identifying A Particular Service403

26.12 Multiple Copies Of A Server For A Single Service403

26.13 Dynamic Server Creation404

26.14 Transport Protocols And Unambiguous Communication404

26.15 Connection-Oriented And Connectionless Transport405

26.16 A Service Reachable Through Multiple Protocols406

26.17 Complex Client-Server Interactions406

26.19 Summary407

26.18 Interactions And Circular Dependencies407

Chapter 27 The Socket Interface411

27.1 Introduction411

27.2 Application Program Interface411

27.3 The Socket ApI412

27.4 Sockets And Socket Libraries412

27.5 Socket Communication And UNIX I/O413

27.6 Sockets,Descriptors,And Network I/O414

27.7 Parameters And The Socket API414

27.8 Procedures That Implement The Socket API415

27.9 Read And Write With Sockets421

27.10 Other Socket Procedures421

27.11 Sockets,Threads,And Inheritance422

27.12 Summary422

Chapter 28 Example Of A Client And A Server425

28.1 Introduction425

28.2 Connection-Oriented Communication425

28.4 Command-Line Arguments For The Example Programs426

28.5 Sequence Of Socket Procedure Calls426

28.3 An Example Service426

28.6 Code For Example Client428

28.7 Code For Example Server431

28.8 Stream Service And Muhiple Recv Calls433

28.9 Socket procedures And Blocking434

28.10 Size Of The Code And Error Reporting434

28.11 Using The Example Client With Another Service435

28.12 Using Another Client To Test The Server435

28.13 Summary436

Chapter 29 Naming With The Domain Name System439

29.1 Introduction439

29.2 Structure Of Computer Names440

29.3 Geographic Structure442

29.4 Domain Names Within An Organization442

29.5 The DNS Client-Server Model444

29.6 The DNS Server Hierarchy444

29.7 Server Architectures445

29.10 Resolving A Name447

29.9 Links Among Servers447

29.8 Locality Of Reference And Multiple Servers447

29.11 Optimization Of DNS Performance449

29.12 Types Of DNS Entries450

29.13 Aliases Using The CNAME Type450

29.14 An Important Consequence Of Multiple Types451

29.15 Abbreviations And The DNS451

29.16 Summary452

30.1 Introduction455

30.2 The Electronic Mail Paradigm455

Chapter 30 Electronic Mail Representation And Transfer455

30.3 Electronic Mailboxes And Addresses456

30.4 Electronic Mail Message Format457

30.5 Carbon Copies459

30.6 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions459

30.7 E-mail And Application Programs461

30.8 Mail Transfer461

30.9 The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol462

30.10 Optimizing For Multiple Recipients On A Computer462

30.11 Mail Exploders,Lists,And Forwarders462

30.12 Mail Gateways463

30.13 Automated Mailing Lists464

30.14 Mail Relays And E-mail Addresses465

30.15 Mailbox Access466

30.16 Dialup Connections And POP468

30.17 Summary468

Chapter 31 File Transfer And Remote File Access471

31.1 Introduction471

31.2 Data Transfer And Distributed Computation471

31.4 Generalized File Transfer472

31.3 Saving Intermediate Results472

31.5 Interactive And Batch Transfer Paradigms473

31.6 The File Transfer Protocol474

31.7 FTP General Model And User Interface474

31.8 FTP Commands475

31.9 Connections,Authorization,And File Permissions476

31.10 Anonymous File Access477

31.11 File Transfer In Either Direction477

31.14 Changing Directories And Listing Contents478

31.13 File Name Translation478

31.12 Wildcard Expansion In File Names478

31.15 File Types And Transfer Modes479

31.16 Example Of Using FTP480

31.17 Verbose Output482

31.18 Client-Server Interaction In FTP482

31.19 Control And Data Connections483

31.20 Data Connections And End Of File484

31.21 Trivial File Transfer Protocol484

31.22 Network File System485

31.23 Summary486

Chapter 32 World Wide Web Pages And Browsing489

32.1 Introduction489

32.2 Browser Interface489

32.3 Hypertext And Hypermedia490

32.4 Document Representation490

32.5 HTML Format And Representation491

32.6 Example HTML Formatting Tags493

32.7 Headings493

32.9 Embedding Graphics Images In A Web Page494

32.8 Lists494

32.10 Identifying A Page495

32.11 Hypertext Links From One Document To Another496

32.12 Client-Server Interaction497

32.13 Web Document Transfer And HTTP498

32.14 Browser Architecture499

32.15 Optional Clients500

32.16 Caching In Web Browsers501

32.17 HTTP Support For Caching502

32.19 Other Markup Languages503

32.18 Alternative Transfer Protocols503

32.20 Summary504

Chapter 33 Dynamic Web Document Technologies(CGI,ASP,JSP,509

PHP,ColdFusion)509

33.1 Introduction509

33.2 Three Basic Types of Web Documents510

33.3 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Each Document Type510

33.4 Implementation Of Dynamic Documents512

33.6 Output From A CGI Program513

33.5 The CGI Standard513

33.7 An Example CGI Program514

33.8 Parameters And Environment Variables516

33.9 State Information And Cookies517

33.10 A CGI Script With Long-Term State Information517

33.11 A CGl Script With Short-Term State Information519

33.12 Forms And Interaction522

33.13 Server-Side Scripting Technologies523

33.14 Summary524

34.1 Introduction527

Chapter 34 Technology For Active Web Documents(Java,527

JavaScript)527

34.2 An Early Form Of Continuous Update528

34.3 Active Documents And Server Overhead529

34.4 Active Document Representation And Translation529

34.5 Java Technology531

34.6 The Java Programming Language531

34.7 The Java Run-Time Environment533

34.8 The Java Library534

34.9 A Graphics Toolkit535

34.10 Using Java Graphics On A Particular Computer536

34.11 Java Interpreters And Browsers537

34.12 Compiling A Java Program537

34.13 An Example Applet538

34.14 Invoking An Applet540

34.15 Example Of Interaction With A Browser541

34.17 JavaScript Technology543

34.16 Errors And Exception Handling543

34.18 Alternatives545

34.19 Summary546

Chapter 35 RPC and Middleware549

35.1 Introduction549

35.2 Programming Clients And Servers549

35.3 Remote Procedure Call Paradigm550

35.4 RPC Paradigm552

35.5 Communication Stubs554

35.6 External Data Representation555

35.7 Middleware And Object-Oriented Middleware556

35.8 Summary558

Chapter 36 Network Management(SNMP)561

36.1 Introduction561

36.2 Managing An Internet561

36.3 The Danger Of Hidden Failures562

36.4 Network Management Software563

36.5 Clients,Servers,Managers,And Agents563

36.7 Fetch-Store Paradigm564

36.6 Simple Network Management Protocol564

36.8 The MIB And Object Names565

36.9 The Variety Of MIB Variables566

36.10 MIB Variables That Correspond To Arrays566

36.11 Summary567

Chapter 37 Network Security569

37.1 Introduction569

37.2 Secure Networks And Policies569

37.3 Aspects Of Security570

37.5 Integrity Mechanisms571

37.4 Responsibility And Control571

37.6 Access Control And Passwords572

37.7 Encryption And Confidentiality572

37.8 Public Key Encryption573

37.9 Authentication With Digital Signatures573

37.10 Internet Firewall Concept574

37.11 Packet Filtering576

37.12 Using Packet Filters To Create A Firewall577

37.13 Virtual Private Networks578

37.14 Tunneling579

37.15 Summary580

Chapter 38 Initialization(Configuration)583

38.1 Introduction583

38.2 Bootstrapping583

38.3 Starting Protocol Software584

38.4 Protocol Parameters584

38.5 Protocol Configuration585

38.6 Examples Of Items That Need To Be Configured585

38.7 Example Configuration:Using A Disk File586

38.8 The Need To Automate Protocol Configuration587

38.9 Methods For Automated Protocol Configuration587

38.10 The Address Used To Find An Address588

38.11 A Sequence Of Protocols Used During Bootstrap589

38.12 Bootstrap Protocol(BOOTP)589

38.13 Automatic Address Assignment591

38.14 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)592

38.15 Optimizations In DHCP593

38.16 DHCP Message Format593

38.17 DHCP And Domain Names594

38.18 Summary595

Appendix 1 Glossary Of Networking Terms And Abbreviations597

Appendix 2 The ASCII Character Set637

Appendix 3 Address Masks In Dotted Decimal639

Appendix 4 How To Use The CD-ROM Included With This Book641

Appendix 5 Building A Network At Home With NAT647

Appendix 6 The Undergrad Networking Lab At Purdue653

Bibliography659

Index667